By recording potentials from large ensembles of rat hippocampal neurons related to the body position in space (place cells) during behavioral tasks, Wilson & McNaughton (87) found that neurons that fired together when the animals occupied particular locations in the environment (hence the name place cells) also exhibited an increased tendency to fire together during subsequent sleep, in comparison to sleep episodes preceding the behavioral tasks. This is for sure the most enigmatic issue about dreaming. 107. 120. Fortunately, thanks to this peculiar incomplete motoneuron inhibition we are able to record movements occurring in both humans and non-human animals and thus infer the presence of dreams. 31. Intermediate state of sleep in the cat. In Greece dreams were called oneiros, a word that originated the adjective oniric but that meant not exactly what was dreamed about neither the dreaming process, which was not rated as something important, but the phantasmata, i.e. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. Neurosci Conscious. Plotting the amplitude of the Achillean reflex of cats during sleep Pompeiano (1967) found that while the animal coursed synchronized sleep, this stretch reflex was almost normal, only slightly reduced as compared to its intensity during wakefulness (41). 118. 94. 27. The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. 52. "Dreams are not ghosts (phantasmata), since they are closely related to the events of the previous day". Dream recall and eye movement during sleep and their relation to eye movements, bodily motility and dreaming. Analysis of psychological theories concerning functions of dreams. The earliest theory to emerge, Freuds psychoanalytic theory, takes an observational approach to identifying the function that dreams serve. Freud theorized that dreams are the result of unfulfilled wishes or desires in the subjects life. Moruzzi G. The sleep-wakefulness cycle. If the animal is kept alive by forced feeding and is kept warm, in six days frontal desynchronization and theta waves in the other cortical areas reappear and then not only wakefulness is fully recovered but also desynchronized sleep, including oniric activity. Kahn D, Pace-Schott EF, Hobson JA. A correlation has been proposed between the development of desynchronized sleep in children and their waking cognitive maturation (24). 28. 116. Thomas J, Benoit O. Individualisation d'un sommeil ondes lentes et activit phasique. Cien Cult 1995;47:221-34. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies The atonia of myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. Theta waves, discovered by Jung and Kornmller in 1938 (72), were extensively studied by Green & Arduini (73), who proved they are related to arousal. 51. Science 1966;153:206-8. 136. The .gov means its official. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. Physiol., Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New york 1972:1-165. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. In rats bilateral lesion of the midbrain reticular formation is followed by a long lasting state of synchronized sleep, with predominance of phase III (Timo-Iaria, Assumpo & Bernardi, unpublished observations). This author "thus proposes a psychoanalytical model of dreaming, in which dreams constitute a way of representing the individual's inner world with internal objects related with one another and with the self" (135). Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. Aserinsky E, Kleitman N. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. 25. John Wiley and Sons, New york 1982. The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. Contemporary neuroscientific theories often view dreams as epiphenomena, and many of the proposals for their biological function are contradicted by the phenomenology of dreams themselves. 79. 131. Mori S, Matysuyama K, Kohyama J, Kobayashi y, Takakusaki K. Neuronal constituents of postural and locomotor control systems and their interactions in cats. However, reflex penile erection is facilitated after spinal transection whereas mesencephalic transections significantly increase the latency to its reflex induction, without affecting the percentage of tests eliciting an erectile event. 67. In normal humans they found that around 20% of the dreams contain a vestibular component (vertigo, sensation of head drop) but in people with a vestibular illness the proportion of such dreams increased to over 70%, as expected from the close relationship between dreams and the events occurring in the previous day (39). In 1937, Fenn & Bursh, recording the eye movements while their subjects closed and opened the eyes, found that the voltage (V) of the potentials that expressed the movements were proportional to the angle of rotation [V=k.2.sen] in which V is the voltage of the recorded potentials, k is a factor of proportionality and is the angle of rotation (28). WebThe leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. Lucrce. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. Editor-translator: Gallop, D., Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1991. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. Exptl Neurol 1963;8:93-111. 72. When they sleep, fishes keep quiet, with no apparent movements, and then they can be easily fished with a hand.". Cravo SLD, Lopes OU, Fraga CAB, Timo-Iaria C. Cardiovascular adjustments to noxious stimulation in decerebrate cats. Sci Am 1990;263:86-8,90-2,94-6. eCollection 2020. Green JD, Arduini A. Hippocampal activity in arousal. There are many hypotheses to account for the existence of dreams but it is still a matter of debate why and what for we dream. (eds.) As a prevailing concept even today, dreams were considered premonitory, messages from the dead and mystical warnings. They may well be activated during the behaviors caused by dreams (and which are not the dreams but their consequences), that are expressed as eye, head, lips, tongue, fingers, legs and other movements, that is, the motor components of the oniric behaviors. This may well reflect auditory dreams, as has been found in humans (36,37). 1. Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. Longitudinal studies. San Diego, 1973. As any neural information, it has to be analyzed, so that the nervous impulses, which carry it be decoded and integrated as a specific neural configuration, that contains all the information released (or revoked) from the mnemonic archives. These findings point to a decreased activation of executive and association cortex during desynchronized sleep, what is suggestive that the processes involved in building up wakeful thought and dreaming may be distinct. Rothschuch KR. Also, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. 2022 Nov 3;12(11):1832. doi: 10.3390/jpm12111832. 77. Carcione A, Santonastaso M, Sferruzza F, Riccardi I. Res Psychother. (1962) clearly demonstrated that in the cat blood diastolic pressure falls deeply to around 60 mmHg, beginning as soon as the electrocorticogram starts to desynchronize. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. During the past two decades several authors also did quantify the kinds of dreams. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Xu Q, Xie H, Zheng D, Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med. Evarts EV. 44. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. Foulkes D. Children's dreams. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. Where do dreams come from? It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. Animal experimentation, by making it possible to implant electrodes in any part of the nervous system and to lesion and stimulate (electrically or chemically) also any nucleus or pathway, has been of the utmost relevance for the understanding of the mechanisms causing not only sleep but also the manifestations of dreaming. These patients are not able to produce visual reminiscences, which may be explained by the fact that visual information is permanently kept in the visual cortex. 113. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. The reinterpretation of dreams: an evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. However, we still do not know why most motor units are inactivated while a few ones are mobilized, causing real but incoherent and non-efficient movements. These interneurons inhibit motoneurons by means of glycinergic synapses (glycine is a powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter), as shown by Soja et al. Geschichte der Physiologie. Krueger JM, Obl F. A neuronal group theory of sleep function. 2021 Aug 30;24(2):543. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2021.543. 4 According to Freud, Vertes RB, Eastman KE. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. 64. Such movements occur while motoneurons are being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane (41,75). Such movements may take the sleeper to fall off the bed. Bourgin P, Escourrou P, Gaultier C, Adrien J. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. 104. 49. This is specially true as to bees, that at night do interrupt their hum, "even if they are exposed to the light of a lantern". Attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. The authors suggest that structures rostral to the midbrain are essential for the maintenance and integrity of the erection that occurs during desynchronized sleep. In cats, Thomas & Benoit (18) have found oniric activity during synchronized sleep, similar to what we described in rats as pre-paradoxical sleep (19,20) as intermediate phase. 73. Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. Above the transection, synchronized and desynchronized sleep keep occurring but without eye movements. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep is, as stated above, generated in the alpha-coeruleus nucleus and involves both direct and indirect pathways that inhibit the motoneurons. The neurophysiological mechanisms of the postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep. 93. Vision is our predominant sensory channel, so much so that if we hear a sound we immediately convey the eyes to the source of the sound, trying to identify its origin, even if vision is absent. J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. Pompeiano O. 85. Rerum Natura, I et II. Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. However, we all know that many dreams are not emotional at all. There is experimental evidence that eye movements are generated near the nucleus of the abducent nerve but Pompeiano (1967) does not agree with this view (10,41). (ed. Sleep 1999;22:409-18. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Salvert D, Touret M, Toyama M, Jouvet M. Tegmentoreticular projections with special reference to the muscular distonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Disclaimer. Two major theories have been proposed regarding the neural circuits involved in dreaming. Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. Many studies performed during the eighteenth century confirmed such statement (4,7). Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. The motor components are usually weak and poorly expressed movements during a dream, mainly if it occurs during desynchronized sleep; when a dream takes place during synchronized sleep phase I, near wakefulness, not only movements are more faithful to the dream content but also the latter is much more logic. 53. 128. The result of such conscious identification is a dream. It should be recalled here that, comparing the dream content in humans with events of the previous day, Calkins found in 1876 that nearly 89% of the reported dreams were closely related to such events. This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). Weed & Halam listed in 1896 (4,7) the proportion of several kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. 111. These findings do not necessarily mean that such areas are involved in generating dreaming. These authors argue that despite the marked suppression of desynchronized sleep provoked by tricyclic antidepressants neither selective serotonine reuptake inhibitors and mono-amino-oxydase nor learning and memory are disrupted. Web5 Theories on dreaming . In: Klemm, W. R. & Vertes, R. P. During wakefulness theta waves consistently exhibit a lesser voltage and are less regular than during desynchronized sleep, what makes it easy to tell wakefulness from desynchronized sleep from the shear inspection of the electro-oscillograms (21,30,31,125). Science 1987;238:797-9. Neuroscience 1997;81:893-926. However, human oniric behaviors are also expressed as lips, tongue and facial movements, as well as fingers, toes and whole limbs jerks, as described above. With Darwin (1965), we are fully convinced that "at least birds and mammals do dream" (6). 33. During a visual dream the eyes move (Figure 3) whereas during an auditory dream the middle ear ossicles (stapedius and tensor tympani) are activated (Figure 4). However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. Perachio AA. Valle AC, Pellarin L, Timo-Iaria C. Oniric patterns in the rat. 2019 Oct 22;10:1127. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01127. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juveline rats. They include facilitation of memory storage, This fundamental issue in learning is, however, still far from being settled, inasmuch as there are several controversial facts in the pertinent literature. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1969;163:181-6. 16. Esoteric power, useless, useful: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy. The posterior areas affected in this syndrome are the visual areas V3, V3a and V4 (97). WebPsychoanalytic theory of dream: Advanced by Freud, the psychoanalytic theory of dream stands as the most valid and fundamental among all the theories of dream. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior. In more recent years several approaches confirmed these findings (89). Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. Doneshka P, Kehaiyov A. Some authors have not been able to find changes in heart rate and respiration during desynchronized sleep (61) but there are striking demonstrations that blood pressure is reduced (figure 6), attaining values as low as 60 mmHg of systolic pressure; heart rate is also reduced and ventilation decreases (38,62). (1991) and Lovblad et al. 69. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. Gardner Jr R, Grossman WI, Roffwarg HP, Weiner H. The relationship of small limb movements during REM sleep to dreamed limb action. While Freud makes many intuitive In fact, all the phases of wakefulness and sleep, including desynchronized sleep, occur in the cerebellar cortex. 24. 129. One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. 5. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. To what degree, and in what way, implications can be drawn from these findings for the psychology of dreaming is controversial. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). 84. Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. 95. WebOne hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. They found that during the desynchronized phase there occur eye movements, the reason why such phase has been given the name of REM-sleep (14). Oka T, Iwakiri H, Mori S. Pontine-induced generalized suppression of postural muscle tone in a reflexively standing acute decerebrate cat. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. 60. WebWhen a person entered rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, it activates circuits within the brain stem. The reason for such vegetative adjustments is obviously that the nervous tissue is metabolically very demanding, so much so that 20% of the inspired oxygen goes to the nervous system. The ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically.
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